Rivers & Where They Origin

Name	Origin From
Ganga	Gangothri
Satluj	Mansarovar Rakas Lakes
Indus	Near Mansarovar Lake
Ravi	Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass
Beas	Near Rohtang Pass
Jhelum	Verinag in Kashmir
Yamuna	Yamunotri
Chambal	M.P.
Ghagra	Matsatung Glacier
Kosi	Near Gosain Dham Park
Betwa	Vindhyanchal
Son	Amarkantak
Brahmaputra	Near Mansarovar Lake
Narmada	Amarkantak
Tapti	Betul Distt. Of MP
Mahanadi	Raipur Distt. In Chattisgarh
Luni	Aravallis
Ghaggar	Himalayas
Sabarmati	Aravallis
Krishna	Western ghats
Godavari	Nasik distt. In Maharashtra
Cauvery	Brahmagir Range of Western Ghats
Tungabhadra	Western Ghats

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The Solitary Reaper english recitation

The Solitary Reaper

Behold her, single in the field,
Yon solitary Highland Lass!
Reaping and singing by herself;
Stop here, or gently pass!
Alone she cuts and binds the grain,
And sings a melancholy strain;
O listen! for the Vale profound
Is overflowing with the sound.

No Nightingale did ever chaunt
More welcome notes to weary bands
Of travellers in some shady haunt,
Among Arabian sands:
A voice so thrilling ne'er was heard
In spring-time from the Cuckoo-bird,
Breaking the silence of the seas
Among the farthest Hebrides.

Will no one tell me what she sings?--
Perhaps the plaintive numbers flow
For old, unhappy, far-off things,
And battles long ago:
Or is it some more humble lay,
Familiar matter of to-day?
Some natural sorrow, loss, or pain,
That has been, and may be again?

Whate'er the theme, the Maiden sang
As if her song could have no ending;
I saw her singing at her work,
And o'er the sickle bending;--
I listened, motionless and still;
And, as I mounted up the hill,
The music in my heart I bore,
Long after it was heard no more.

William Wordsworth

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Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy, normally from the sun, into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms' activities. Carbohydrates, such as sugars, are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water (hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek , phōs ( phōtos), i.e. "light", and synthesis, i.e. "putting together") during the process. Oxygen is also released, mostly as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform the process of photosynthesis, and are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis maintains atmospheric oxygen levels and supplies most of the energy necessary for all life on Earth, except for chemotrophs, which gain energy through oxidative chemical reactions.
Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances such as water. This produces oxygen gas and hydrogen ions, which are transferred to a compound called nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP⁺), reducing it to NADPH. More light energy is transferred to chemical energy in the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy currency" of cells.
In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, sugars are produced by a sequence of light-independent reactions called the Calvin cycle, but some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate .Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced into triose phosphate. Of every six triose phosphate molecules produced, one is removed to form further carbohydrates and five are "recycled" back into the cycle to regenerate the original carbon dioxide acceptor, RuBP.

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Chloroplast & Their Types

Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells . As well as conducting photosynthesis, they carry out almost all fatty acid synthesis in plants, and are involved in a plant's immune response. A chloroplast is a type of plastid which specializes in photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, chloroplasts capture the sun's light energy, and store it in the energy storage molecules ATP and NADPH while freeing oxygen from water. They then use the ATP and NADPH to make organic molecules from carbon dioxide in a process known as the Calvin cycle.
The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek words chloros, which means green, and plastes , which means "the one who forms"

Types Of Choroplast

Chlorophyll a is a specific form of chlorophyll used in oxygenic photosynthesis. It absorbs most energy from wavelengths of violet-blue and orange-red light. This photosynthetic pigment is essential for photosynthesis in eukaryotes, cyanobacteria and prochlorophytes because of its role as primary electron donor in the electron transport chain. Chlorophyll a also transfers resonance energy in the antenna complex, ending in the reaction center where specific chlorophylls P680 and P700 are located.

 

Chlorophyll b is a form of chlorophyll. Chlorophyll b helps in photosynthesis by absorbing light energy. It is more soluble than chlorophyll a in polar solvents because of its carbonyl group. Its color is yellow, and it primarily absorbs blue light.
In land plants, the light harvesting antennae around photosystem II contain the majority of chlorophyll b. Hence, in 'shade adapted chloroplasts', which have an increased ratio of Photosystem II to Photosystem I, there is a lower ratio of chlorophyll a to chlorophyll b (Kitajima and Hogan 2003). This is adaptive as increasing chlorophyll b increases the range of wavelengths absorbed by the shade chloroplasts.


Xanthophylls (originally phylloxanthins) are yellow pigments that form one of two major divisions of the carotenoid group. The name is from Greek xanthos ("yellow")+ phyllon ( "leaf") due to their formation of the yellow band seen in early chromatography of leaf pigments. Their molecular structure is similar to carotenes, which form the other major carotenoid group division, but xanthophylls contain oxygen atoms, while carotenes are purely hydrocarbons with no oxygen. Xanthophylls contain their oxygen either as hydroxyl groups and/or as pairs of hydrogen atoms that are substituted by oxygen atoms acting as a bridge (epoxide). For this reason, they are more polar than the purely hydrocarbon carotenes, and it is this difference that allows their separations from carotenes in many types of chromatography. Typically, carotenes are more orange in color than xanthophylls.

Carotenes contribute to photosynthesis by transmitting the light energy they absorb from chlorophyll. They also protect plant tissues by helping to absorb the energy from singlet oxygen, an excited form of the oxygen molecule O₂ which is formed during photosynthesis. Chemically, carotenes are polyunsaturated hydrocarbons containing 40 carbon atoms per molecule, variable numbers of hydrogen atoms, and no other elements. Some carotenes are terminated by hydrocarbon rings, on one or both ends of the molecule. All are coloured to the human eye, due to extensive systems of conjugated double bonds. Structurally carotenes are tetraterpenes, meaning that they are synthesized biochemically from four 10-carbon terpene units, which in turn are formed from eight 5-carbon isoprene units.
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Information & Structure Of Volcano

Volcanoes are awesome manifestations of the fiery power contained deep within the Earth. These formations are essentially vents on the Earth's surface where molten rock, debris, and gases from the planet's interior are emitted.
When thick magma and large amounts of gas build up under the surface, eruptions can be explosive, expelling lava, rocks and ash into the air. Less gas and more viscous magma usually mean a less dramatic eruption, often causing streams of lava to ooze from the vent.
The mountain-like mounds that we associate with volcanoes are what remain after the material spewed during eruptions has collected and hardened around the vent. This can happen over a period of weeks or many millions of years.
A large eruption can be extremely dangerous for people living near a volcano. Flows of searing lava, which can reach 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit (1,250 degrees Celsius) or more, can be released, burning everything in its path, including whole towns. Boulders of hardening lava can rain down on villages. Mud flows from rapidly melting snow can strip mountains and valleys bare and bury towns. Ash and toxic gases can cause lung damage and other problems, particularly for infants and the elderly. Scientists estimate that more than 260,000 people have died in the past 300 years from volcanic eruptions and their aftermath.
Volcanoes tend to exist along the edges between tectonic plates, massive rock slabs that make up Earth's surface. About 90 percent of all volcanoes exist within the Ring of Fire along the edges of the Pacific Ocean.
About 1,900 volcanoes on Earth are considered active, meaning they show some level of activity and are likely to explode again. Many other volcanoes are dormant, showing no current signs of exploding but likely to become active at some point in the future. Others are considered extinct.

Structure Of Volcano

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Earthquakes

Earthquakes

An earthquake is a sudden and sometimes catastrophic movement of a part of the earth's surface. Earthquakes result from the dynamic release of elastic strain energy that radiates seismic waves. Earthquakes typically result from the movement of faults, planar zones of deformation within the earth's upper crust.
Scientists in the Cecil H. and Ida M. Green Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics at Scripps Institution of Oceanography conduct numerous studies of Earth, including research on earthquakes that occur in its oceans, as well as on land. Scripps researchers operate the global IDA Seismic Network and a geophysical observatory near Palm Springs. Earthquake research has been under way at Scripps for decades as scientists are attempting to understand why earthquakes occur and where they are most likely to strike.

Primary Waves & Secondary Waves

 

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Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze and proto-writing, and other features of urban civilization.
The Bronze Age is the second principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system, as proposed in modern times by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, for classifying and studying ancient societies. An ancient civilization can be in the Bronze Age either by smelting its own copper and alloying with tin, or by trading for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Copper-tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in western Asia before the third millennium BC. Worldwide, the Bronze Age generally followed the Neolithic period, but in some parts of the world, the Copper Age served as a transition from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Although the Iron Age generally followed the Bronze Age, in some areas, the Iron Age intruded directly on the Neolithic from outside the region except for Sub-Saharan Africa where it was developed independently.
Bronze Age cultures differed in their development of the first writing. According to archaeological evidence, cultures in Egypt (hieroglyphs), the Near East (cuneiform), China (oracle bone script)—and the Mediterranean, with the Mycenaean culture (Linear B)—had viable writing systems.
The Bronze Age in South Asia begins around 3000 BC, and in the end gives rise to the Indus Valley Civilization, which had its (mature period) between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It continues into the Rigvedic period, the early part of the Vedic period. It is succeeded by the Iron Age in India, beginning in around 1000 BC.
South India, by contrast, remains in the Mesolithic stage until about 2500 BC. In the 2nd millennium BC, there may have been cultural contact between North and South India, even though South India skips a Bronze Age proper and enters the Iron Age from the Chalcolithic stage directly. In February, 2006, a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old.Indian epigrahist Iravatham Mahadevan postulated that the writing was in Indus script and called the find "the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu".Based on this evidence he goes on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of Dravidian Origin. However, the absence of Bronze Age in South India, whereas the knowledge of the Bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures questions the validity of this hypothesis.

Map 

 

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